Growing Sugarcane
Crop Nutrition Advice

Introduction

Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) is a perennial C4 grass cultivated primarily the production of sugar, ethanol, bioenergy, and a wide range of industrial by-products. Unlike cereal crops, which store energy predominantly as starch in their grains, sugarcane accumulates large quantities of sucrose in its stalks. .

Sugarcane is grown on more than 26 million hectares globally and annual production exceeds 2 billion tonnes, making it one of the most significant agricultural commodities in the world (FAO, 2025). It plays a key role in sugar production, renewable energy generation, industrial manufacturing, and rural employment. Brazil, India, China, Thailand, and Pakistan are among the leading producers and account for a substantial share of global sugarcane production.

Sugarcane is characterized by an extensive root system, high nutrient uptake capacity, and exceptional biomass production. Commercial yields commonly range from 50 to 150 t/ha of cane, although substantially higher yields can be achieved under optimal growing conditions and intensive management practices. Because of its long growth cycle and large nutrient requirements, sugarcane demands a carefully planned nutrition program to sustain high yields, maximize sugar accumulation, and maintain soil fertility throughout successive ratoon crops. Effective nutrient management is therefore a fundamental component of productive and sustainable sugarcane production systems.

History of Sugarcane

Sugarcane is believed to have originated in New Guinea, where it was first domesticated and consumed by chewing its sweet stalks. . The crop subsequently spread throughout Southeast Asia and reached the Indian subcontinent, where technologies for sugar extraction and crystallization were developed. By the time of Alexander the Great’s expedition to India in 327 B.C., sugarcane was already an important cultivated crop in the region. Through trade routes and cultural exchanges, sugarcane cultivation expanded westward into Persia, the Middle East, North Africa, and the Mediterranean.  During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Portuguese and Spanish explorers introduced sugarcane to the Americas and other tropical regions, leading to its widespread cultivation throughout the world’s tropical and subtropical zones.

Growing Conditions

Climate

Commercial sugarcane is predominantly cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions between approximately 35°N and 35°S latitude.. The crop is highly efficient in converting solar radiation into biomass due to its C4 photosynthetic pathway and perform best under warm temperatures, high solar radiation, and adequate water supply. Optimal growth generally occurs at temperatures between 25 and 35°C. Sugarcane is sensitive to frost and prolonged exposure to cold conditions. Frost events can damage plant tissues, impair photosynthesis, reduce ratoon establishment, and decrease subsequent crop yield.

Climate influences not only biomass production but also crop ripening and final sugar yield. Sugar production depends on the balance between vegetative growth and sucrose accumulation in the stalks. During the vegetative phase, warm temperatures, adequate moisture, and sufficient nutrient availability promote canopy development and biomass production. As the crop approaches maturity, relatively dry conditions, moderate water deficits, and cool night temperatures help reduce vegetative growth and stimulate sucrose accumulation, thereby improving cane quality and sugar yield. Conversely, excessive rainfall and continued vegetative growth near harvest may delay ripening and reduce sucrose concentration (Cardozo et al., 2015; Mehdi et al., 2024).

Water requirements

Depending on climate, soil properties, cultivar, and production system, sugarcane generally requires between 1,500 and 2,500 mm of water during the growing cycle.

Drought stress reduces water uptake by roots, limits photosynthesis, impairs nutrient transport, and restricts biomass accumulation. In Brazil, drought has been reported to reduce sugarcane yields by approximately 9%, with yield losses exceeding 60% under severe stress conditions (Gentile et al., 2015).

The effects of water stress vary according to the growth stage. Water deficits during germination and vegetative growth can significantly reduce plant establishment, tillering, canopy development, and final cane yield. However, moderate water restriction during the ripening phase may be beneficial, as it reduces vegetative growth and promotes the partitioning of assimilates to sucrose storage in the stalks, improving cane quality and recoverable sugar yield.

Soil

Sugarcane is adapted to a wide variety range of soil types but performs best in deep, well-drained soils with high water-holding capacity. Soil depth is particularly important because a large root system is required to sustain the high water and nutrient demands of the crop. Although most roots are concentrated within the upper meter of the soil profile, roots may penetrate deeper where physical and chemical conditions are favorable.

Adequate soil aeration is essential for root growth and nutrient uptake. Poorly drained soils, waterlogging, and soil compaction restrict oxygen diffusion into the root zone, reducing root activity and potentially limiting crop yield.

The optimum soil pH for sugarcane is generally between 6.0 and 6.5, where nutrient availability and root development are maximized. Under acidic conditions, crop performance may be limited by aluminum toxicity and reduced availability of phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium. In alkaline soils, deficiencies of micronutrients such as zinc and iron may become limiting factors for growth and yield.

Sugarcane is moderately sensitive to salinity. Yield decreases as root-zone salinity increases due to osmotic stress and ion toxicity effects. The salinity threshold for sugarcane is an ECe of approximately 1.7 dS m⁻¹. Above this threshold, yield declines. Estimated yield reductions are approximately 10% at 3.3 dS/m, 25% at 6.0 dS/m, and 50% at 10.4 dS/m.

Cultivation method

Sugarcane is commonly grown as a ratoon crop, in which the stalks are harvested while the root system and basal buds remain in the field, allowing new shoots to emerge and produce subsequent harvests. This system reduces planting costs and enables multiple harvest cycles from a single planting. Depending on environmental conditions, cultivar, and management practices, sugarcane is typically maintained for several ratoon crops before replanting (around 4 – 6 cycles). Successive ratoon harvests can increase the importance of effective nutrient management because substantial amounts of nutrients are removed with the harvested biomass, while root turnover, soil compaction, and other factors may gradually reduce crop yield.

Global Sugarcane Production

Sugarcane is one of the world’s most important agricultural crops. According to FAO (2025), the global sugarcane harvested area is more than 26 million ha, with an annual production of 1940 Mt..

South America and Asia are the principal producing regions, followed by Central America (including the Caribbean) and Africa. The major sugarcane-producing countries are Brazil (39% of the global production), India (23%), China (5%), Pakistan (4%), and Thailand (4%), which are responsible for 75% of global production (FAO, 2025).

The sugar yield from a crop depends on the cane tonnage, the sugar content, and the cane quality. Harvesting at the optimum stage of maturity is therefore essential to maximize recoverable sugar and industrial efficiency..

Commercial yields typically range from 50 and 150 t/ha depending on climate, soil conditions, cultivar, crop age, and management practices. Under. favorable conditions yields may exceed 150 t/ha.

Sugarcane Uses

Sugarcane is cultivated primarily for the production of sugar, ethanol, bioenergy, and an expanding range of biobased products. According to FAO (2025) the global sugar production typically ranges from approximately 175 to 190 million tonnes annually, with sugarcane accounting for about 80% of the world’s sugar production and sugar beet supplying the remainder.

Beyond sugar production, sugarcane is one of the most important feedstocks for renewable biofuels owing to its high biomass productivity, photosynthetic efficiency, and ethanol production potential. In countries such as Brazil, a substantial proportion of the crop is processed into ethanol for transportation fuel and renewable energy generation.

In addition, sugarcane processing generates several valuable coproducts. Bagasse, the fibrous residue remaining after juice extraction, is widely used for cogeneration of heat and electricity. It is also an important feedstock for second-generation ethanol and other biobased products. Molasses supports ethanol and yeast production, while filter cake and vinasse are recycled in agricultural systems as sources of nutrients, contributing to nutrient cycling.

The integration of sugar production, bioenergy generation, and byproduct recycling has made sugarcane systems a leading example of a circular bioeconomy, supporting both renewable energy production and agricultural sustainability (Karp et al., 2022; Soares et al., 2024).

Growth Stages

Planting, germination & bud activation – Each cane cutting contains buds that initiate new shoots and roots, forming the primary stems that support early crop establishment.

Tillering – Multiple shoots emerge as the root system expands; strong tillering sets the foundation for final cane population and and overall yield potential.

Stem elongation – Internodes lengthen rapidly, driving stalk growth, canopy development, and biomass accumulation.

Maturation/ripening – Stalks thicken, sucrose accumulation intensifies, and vegetative growth declines as the crop approaches harvest readiness.

Sugarcane growth stages from planted cane cutting to mature plant, showing progressive shoot and root development.

Nutrients’ Role in Sugarcane

Sugarcane exceptional biomass production is supported by substantial nutrient uptake from the soil throughout the growing cycle. In addition to macro- and micronutrients, sugarcane accumulates large quantities of silicon (Si), which, although not classified as an essential element, provides important agronomic benefits. Silicon can enhance plant tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, including insect pests such as stem borers, and drought, thereby contributing to crop yield and resilience.

Nitrogen (N)

Nitrogen is the nutrient most associated with canopy development,  photosynthetic capacity, and biomass production in sugarcane. Adequate N supply promotes leaf area expansion, tillering, stalk growth, and dry matter accumulation, while deficiency reduces plant

growth, root development and tiller production. Nitrogen responses are generally greater in ratoon cane than in plant cane.

Although sugarcane can associate with diazotrophic bacteria capable of biological N fixation, the contribution of this process is highly variable and depends of many factors (e.g. genotype, soil, climate, and crop management). Therefore, fertilizer N remains an important component of nutrition programs for high-yielding production systems (Otto et al., 2016). Sugarcane also exhibits limited nitrate accumulation capacity, which may increase the risk of nitrate losses (Robinson et al., 2011).

Phosphorus (P)

Phosphorus is particularly important during crop establishment, promoting root growth, tillering, and early shoot development. It plays a fundamental role in energy transfer, cell division, and photosynthesis, supporting vigorous crop growth and efficient nutrient uptake. In tropical soil, P fertilization is especially important, where P availability is often limited by fixation reactions (Soares et al., 2021).

Potassium (K)

Potassium is typically the nutrient absorbed and removed in greatest quantities by sugarcane. Modern varieties may export approximately 1.4-1.9 kg K₂O per tonne of harvested stalks (Otto et al., 2025). Potassium regulates osmotic balance, stomatal activity, enzyme activation, carbohydrate transport, and water-use efficiency. As a result, adequate K nutrition promotes stalk growth, sucrose translocation, and drought tolerance. Excessive K application, however, may increase mineral impurities in cane juice and affect industrial quality (Kumawat et al., 2016; Lavres et al., 2025).

Magnesium (Mg)

Magnesium is the central component of the chlorophyll molecule and is therefore indispensable for photosynthesis. It also participates in enzyme activation, carbohydrate metabolism, and energy transfer reactions. Adequate Mg nutrition supports biomass production and sucrose accumulation (Cakmak &Yazici, 2010).

Sulfur (S)

Sulfur is required for the synthesis of amino acids, proteins, enzymes, and is closely associated with N metabolism. Modern sugarcane systems increasingly face S deficiency due to high nutrient removal and reduced atmospheric S deposition. A multisite field studies in Brazil demonstrated positive sugarcane yield responses to S fertilization, with average gains of 5-7 Mg ha⁻¹ in the first ratoon crop and additional residual benefits in subsequent ratoons, highlighting the importance of adequate S nutrition in high-yielding production systems (Otto et al., 2023).

Calcium (Ca)

Calcium is an essential structural component of cell walls and membranes and plays a critical role in cell division, meristem activity, and root development. In sugarcane production systems, Ca supplied through lime or gypsum improves root development and soil conditions by alleviating aluminum toxicity and increasing nutrient and water acquisition, particularly in acidic soils (van Raij, 2011).

Micronutrients

Micronutrients are required in small quantities but play essential roles in sugarcane growth, yield, and sucrose accumulation. They are involved in photosynthesis, enzyme activation, antioxidant defense, sugar transport, and N metabolism. Zinc (Zn) is associated with enzyme activity and auxin synthesis, boron (B) supports cell wall integrity and carbohydrate transport, iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) are essential for photosynthesis and redox reactions, copper (Cu) participates in electron transport, molybdenum (Mo) and nickel (Ni) are involved in N metabolism, and chloride (Cl) contributes to osmotic regulation and stomatal function. Although required in much smaller amounts than macronutrients, micronutrient deficiencies can significantly limit sugarcane yield, particularly in highly weathered tropical soils and intensive production systems (Marschner, 2012).

Sugarcane Nutrient Requirements

Sugarcane is one of the most nutrient-demanding crops worldwide due to its high biomass production. Sugar crops (sugarcane and sugarbeet, the first being the dominant) account for 3.6% of global N, 3.6% of globalP₂O₅, and 6.3% of global K₂O fertilizer consumption, respectively. In Brazil, sugarcane’s fertilizer consumption is only exceeded by soybean (40% vs 14%) (Heffer et al., 2017).  Potassium is typically the nutrient absorbed and exported in the greatest quantities, followed by N and Ca, emphasizing the need for balanced fertilization programs (Otto et al., 2025)

Nutrient requirements increase rapidly during the grand growth phase, when crop biomass accumulation and nutrient uptake rates are at their highest. Tables 1 and 2 summarize the typical nutrient requirements and nutrient removal associated with sugarcane production, while Figure 2 illustrates the general pattern of nutrient uptake by ratoon sugarcane in Brazil. Nutrient accumulation and removal, however, can vary considerably depending on genotype, yield potential, soil fertility, environmental conditions, and crop management practices (Otto et al., 2025). A substantial proportion of the nutrients absorbed throughout the crop cycle remains in crop residues, which are typically retained in the field after harvest and contribute to nutrient recycling.

Deficiency Symptoms

Nitrogen deficiency

• Appears first on older leaves.
• Leaves become pale green to yellow, while stalk growth, tillering, and root development are reduced.
• In severe cases, older leaves show tip and margin necrosis, and plants become thin and stunted.

Phosphorus deficiency

• Appears first on older leaves.
• Plants exhibit reduced growth, poor tillering, and shorter, thinner stalks and internodes.
• Severe deficiency reduces cane yield.

Potassium deficiency

• Appears first on older leaves.
• Leaf margins and tips become yellow and necrotic, often progressing to a scorched appearance.
• Premature leaf senescence, reduced stalk growth, and poor stool development are common.

Calcium deficiency

• Appears first on younger leaves and growing points.
• Young leaves become distorted, hooked, or malformed, while spindle growth is restricted.
• Root growth is impaired and severe deficiencies may result in death of the growing point.

Magnesium deficiency

• Appears first on older leaves.
• Older leaves develop interveinal chlorosis and may later show brown necrotic spots, often described as“orange freckle”.
• Growth and tillering are reduced.

Sulfur deficiency

• Appears first on young leaves
• Young leaves become uniformly pale green to yellow.
• Plants are generally thin and stunted, resembling N deficiency, but symptoms occur on young rather than older leaves.

Molybdenum deficiency

• Interveinal chlorosis and yellow streaking may develop, followed by premature leaf senescence.
• Symptoms are often associated with impaired N utilization.

Copper deficiency

• Leaves become chlorotic and droopy, stalks may become soft or flexible, and overall crop vigor decline

Zinc deficiency

• Interveinal chlorosis or yellow striping develops while the midrib oftenremain green.
• Plants exhibit poor root development, and stuned growth.

Iron deficiency

• Young leaves develop interveinal chroloris that may progress to nearly complete bleaching in severe cases.

Boron deficiency

• Appears first on growing points and young tissues.
• Leaves become distorted and brittle, growing points may die, and translucent lesions may develop between veins.
• Severe deficiency can result in excessive tillering and malformed growth.

Manganese deficiency

• Pale interveinal striping along the leaf blade and may followed by chlorosis and necrotic streaking under severe deficiency.

Chloride deficiency

• Rare in sugarcane.
• Leaves may wilt during the day despite adequate soil misture, while roots become shortened and highly branched

Aluminum toxicity

• Common in strong acidic soils.
• Roots become short,  thickened, and poorly developed, restricting water and nutrient uptake.
• Leaves may exhibit symptoms resembling P or K deficiency, and severe toxicity can reduce plant growth and survival. 

Conclusion

Sugarcane is a highly productive crop with substantial nutrient requirements driven by its large biomass production. Achieving high yields and sugar production depends on the integration of favorable environmental conditions, vigorous root development, efficient water use, and adequate nutrition. Nutrient uptake increases rapidly during the grand growth phase and continues until crop maturity, requiring an adequate supply of both macro- and micronutrients to sustain growth, sucrose accumulation, and ratoon yield.  Because sugarcane removes large quantities of nutrients, effective nutrient management should consider crop demand, soil fertility, nutrient recycling from crop residues, and expected yield levels. A sound understanding of nutrient functions, uptake patterns, and deficiency symptoms is therefore essential for developing sustainable and productive sugarcane systems.

References

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